The invention relates generally to the field of plasma physics, and, in particular, to methods and apparati for confining plasma to enable nuclear fusion and for converting energy from fusion products into electricity.
Fusion is the process by which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier one. The fusion process releases a tremendous amount of energy in the form of fast moving particles. Because atomic nuclei are positively chargedxe2x80x94due to the protons contained thereinxe2x80x94there is a repulsive electrostatic, or Coulomb, force between them. For two nuclei to fuse, this repulsive barrier must be overcome, which occurs when two nuclei are brought close enough together where the short-range nuclear forces become strong enough to overcome the Coulomb force and fuse the nuclei. The energy necessary for the nuclei to overcome the Coulomb barrier is provided by their thermal energies, which must be very high. For example, the fusion rate can be appreciable if the temperature is at least of the order of 104 eVxe2x80x94corresponding roughly to 100 million degrees Kelvin. The rate of a fusion reaction is a function of the temperature, and it is characterized by a quantity called reactivity. The reactivity of a D-T reaction, for example, has a broad peak between 30 keV and 100 keV.
Typical fusion reactions include:
D+Dxe2x86x92He3(0.8 MeV)+n(2.5 MeV),
D+Txe2x86x92xcex1(3.6 MeV)+n(14.1 MeV),
D+He3xe2x86x92xcex1(3.7 MeV)+p(14.1 MeV),
and
p+B11xe2x86x923xcex1(8.7 MeV),
where D indicates deuterium, T indicates tritium, xcex1 indicates a helium nucleus, n indicates a neutron, p indicates a proton, He indicates helium, and B11 indicates Boron-11. The numbers in parentheses in each equation indicate the kinetic energy of the fusion products.
The first two reactions listed abovexe2x80x94the Dxe2x80x94D and D-T reactionsxe2x80x94are neutronic, which means that most of the energy of their fusion products is carried by fast neutrons. The disadvantages of neutronic reactions are that (1) the flux of fast neutrons creates many problems, including structural damage of the reactor walls and high levels of radioactivity for most construction materials; and (2) the energy of fast neutrons is collected by converting their thermal energy to electric energy, which is very inefficient (less than 30%). The advantages of neutronic reactions are that (1) their reactivity peaks at a relatively low temperature; and (2) their losses due to radiation are relatively low because the atomic numbers of deuterium and tritium are 1.
The reactants in the other two equationsxe2x80x94D-He3 and p-B11 are called advanced fuels. Instead of producing fast neutrons, as in the neutronic reactions, their fusion products are charged particles. One advantage of the advanced fuels is that they create much fewer neutrons and therefore suffer less from the disadvantages associated with them. In the case of D-He3, some fast neutrons are produced by secondary reactions, but these neutrons account for only about 10 per cent of the energy of the fusion products. The p-B11 reaction is free of fast neutrons, although it does produce some slow neutrons that result from secondary reactions but create much fewer problems. Another advantage of the advanced fuels is that their fusion products comprise charged particles whose kinetic energy may be directly convertible to electricity. With an appropriate direct energy conversion process, the energy of advanced fuel fusion products may be collected with a high efficiency, possibly in excess of 90 percent.
The advanced fuels have disadvantages, too. For example, the atomic numbers of the advanced fuels are higher (2 for He3 and 5 for B11). Therefore, their radiation losses are greater than in the neutronic reactions. Also, it is much more difficult to cause the advanced fuels to fuse. Their peak reactivities occur at much higher temperatures and do not reach as high as the reactivity for D-T. Causing a fusion reaction with the advanced fuels thus requires that they be brought to a higher energy state where their reactivity is significant. Accordingly, the advanced fuels must be contained for a longer time period wherein they can be brought to appropriate fusion conditions.
The containment time for a plasma is
xcex94t=r2/D,
where r is a minimum plasma dimension and D is a diffusion coefficient. The classical value of the diffusion coefficient is
Dc=xcex1i2/xcfx84ie,
where xcex1i is the ion gyroradius and xcfx84ie is the ion-electron collision time. Diffusion according to the classical diffusion coefficient is called classical transport. The Bohm diffusion coefficient, attributed to short-wavelength instabilities, is
DB=({fraction (1/16)})xcex1i2xcexa9i,
where xcexa9i is the ion gyrofrequency. Diffusion according to this relationship is called anomalous transport. For fusion conditions,
DB/Dc=({fraction (1/16)})xcexa9ixcfx84iexe2x89xa1108,
anomalous transport results in a much shorter containment time than does classical transport. This relation determines how large a plasma must be in a fusion reactor, by the requirement that the containment time for a given amount of plasma must be longer than the time for the plasma to have a nuclear fusion reaction. Therefore, classical transport condition is more desirable in a fusion reactor, allowing for smaller initial plasmas.
In early experiments with toroidal confinement of plasma, a containment time of
xcex94txe2x89xa1r2/DB 
was observed. Progress in the last 40 years has increased the containment time to
xcex94txe2x89xa11000r2/DB.
One existing fusion reactor concept is the Tokamak. The magnetic field of a Tokamak 68 and a typical particle orbit 66 are illustrated in FIG. 5. For the past 30 years, fusion efforts have been focussed on the Tokamak reactor using a D-T fuel. These efforts have culminated in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), illustrated in FIG. 7. Recent experiments with Tokamaks suggest that classical transport,
xcex94txe2x89xa1r2/Dc,
is possible, in which case the minimum plasma dimension can be reduced from meters to centimeters. These experiments involved the injection of energetic beams (50 to 100 keV), to heat the plasma to temperatures of 10 to 30 keV. See W. Heidbrink and G. J. Sadler, 34 Nuclear Fusion 535 (1994). The energetic beam ions in these experiments were observed to slow down and diffuse classically while the thermal plasma continued to diffuse anomalously fast. The reason for this is that the energetic beam ions have a large gyroradius and, as such, are insensitive to fluctuations with wavelengths shorter than the ion gyroradius (xcex less than xcex1i). The short-wavelength fluctuations tend to average over a cycle and thus cancel. Electrons, however, have a much smaller gyroradius, so they respond to the fluctuations and transport anomalously.
Because of anomalous transport, the minimum dimension of the plasma must be at least 2.8 meters. Due to this dimension, the ITER was created 30 meters high and 30 meters in diameter. This is the smallest D-T Tokamak-type reactor that is feasible. For advanced fuels, such as D-He3 and p-B11, the Tokamak-type reactor would have to be much larger because the time for a fuel ion to have a nuclear reaction is much longer. A Tokamak reactor using D-T fuel has the additional problem that most of the energy of the fusion products energy is carried by 14 MeV neutrons, which cause radiation damage and induce reactivity in almost all construction materials due to the neutron flux. In addition, the conversion of their energy into electricity must be by a thermal process, which is not more than 30% efficient.
Another proposed reactor configuration is a colliding beam reactor. In a colliding beam reactor, a background plasma is bombarded by beams of ions. The beams comprise ions with an energy that is much larger than the thermal plasma. Producing useful fusion reactions in this type of reactor has been infeasible because the background plasma slows down the ion beams. Various proposals have been made to reduce this problem and maximize the number of nuclear reactions.
For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,065,351 to Jassby et al. discloses a method of producing counterstreaming colliding beams of deuterons and tritons in a toroidal confinement system. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,057,462 to Jassby et al., electromagnetic energy is injected to counteract the effects of bulk equilibrium plasma drag on one of the ion species. The toroidal confinement system is identified as a Tokamak. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,894,199 to Rostoker, beams of deuterium and tritium are injected and trapped with the same average velocity in a Tokamak, mirror, or field reversed configuration. There is a low-density cool background plasma for the sole purpose of trapping the beams. The beams react because they have a high temperature, and slowing down is mainly caused by electrons that accompany the injected ions. The electrons are heated by the ions in which case the slowing down is minimal.
In none of these devices, however, does an equilibrium electric field play any part. Further, there is no attempt to reduce, or even consider, anomalous transport.
Other patents consider electrostatic confinement of ions and, in some cases, magnetic confinement of electrons. These include U.S. Pat. No. 3,258,402 to Farnsworth and U.S. Pat. No. 3,386,883 to Farnsworth, which disclose electrostatic confinement of ions and inertial confinement of electrons; U.S. Pat. No. 3,530,036 to Hirsch et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 3,530,497 to Hirsch et al. are similar to Farnsworth; U.S. Pat. No. 4,233,537 to Limpaecher, which discloses electrostatic confinement of ions and magnetic confinement of electrons with multi-pole cusp reflecting walls; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,826,646 to Bussard, which is similar to Limpaecher and involves point cusps. None of these patents consider electrostatic confinement of electrons and magnetic confinement of ions. Although there have been many research projects on electrostatic confinement of ions, none of them have succeeded in establishing the required electrostatic fields when the ions have the required density for a fusion reactor. Lastly, none of the patents cited above discuss a field reversed configuration magnetic topology.
The field-reversed configuration (FRC) was discovered accidentally around 1960 at the Naval Research Laboratory during theta pinch experiments. A typical FRC topology, wherein the internal magnetic field reverses direction, is illustrated in FIG. 8 and FIG. 10, and particle orbits in a FRC are shown in FIG. 11 and FIG. 14. Regarding the FRC, many research programs have been supported in the United States and Japan. There is a comprehensive review paper on the theory and experiments of FRC research from 1960-1988. See M. Tuszewski, 28 Nuclear Fusion 2033, (1988). A white paper on FRC development describes the research in 1996 and recommendations for future research. See L. C. Steinhauer et al., 30 Fusion Technology 116 (1996). To this date, in FRC experiments the FRC has been formed with the theta pinch method. A consequence of this formation method is that the ions and electrons each carry half the current, which results in a negligible electrostatic field in the plasma and no electrostatic confinement. The ions and electrons in these FRCs were contained magnetically. In almost all FRC experiments, anomalous transport has been assumed. See, e.g., Tuszewski, beginning of section 1.5.2, at page 2072.
Thus, it is desirable to provide a fusion system having a containment system that tends to substantially reduce or eliminate anomalous transport of ions and electrons and an energy conversion system that converts the energy of fusion products to electricity with high efficiency.
The present invention is directed to a system that facilitates controlled fusion in a magnetic field having a field-reversed topology and the direct conversion of fusion product energies to electric power. The system, referred to herein as a plasma-electric power generation (PEG) system, preferably includes a fusion reactor having a containment system that tends to substantially reduce or eliminate anomalous transport of ions and electrons. In addition, the PEG system includes an energy conversion system coupled to the reactor that directly converts fusion product energies to electricity with high efficiency.
In one innovative aspect of the present invention, anomalous transport for both ions and electrons tends to be substantially reduced or eliminated. The anomalous transport of ions tends to be avoided by magnetically confining the ions in a magnetic field of field reversed configuration (FRC). For electrons, the anomalous transport of energy is avoided by tuning an externally applied magnetic field to develop a strong electric field, which confines the electrons electrostatically in a deep potential well. As a result, fusion fuel plasmas that can be used with the present confinement apparatus and process are not limited to neutronic fuels, but also advantageously include advanced or aneutronic fuels. For aneutronic fuels, fusion reaction energy is almost entirely in the form of charged particles, i.e., energetic ions, that can be manipulated in a magnetic field and, depending on the fuel, cause little or no radioactivity.
In another innovative aspect of the present invention, a direct energy conversion system is used to convert the kinetic energy of the fusion products directly into electric power by slowing down the charged particles through an electromagnetic field. Advantageously, the direct energy conversion system of the present invention has the efficiencies, particle-energy tolerances and electronic ability to convert the frequency and phase of the fusion output power of about 5 MHz to match the frequency of an external 60 Hertz power grid.
In a preferred embodiment, the fusion reactor""s plasma containment system comprises a chamber, a magnetic field generator for applying a magnetic field in a direction substantially along a principle axis, and an annular plasma layer that comprises a circulating beam of ions. Ions of the annular plasma beam layer are substantially contained within the chamber magnetically in orbits and the electrons are substantially contained in an electrostatic energy well. In one aspect of one preferred embodiment a magnetic field generator comprises a current coil. Preferably, the system further comprises mirror coils near the ends of the chamber that increase the magnitude of the applied magnetic field at the ends of the chamber. The system may also comprise a beam injector for injecting a neutralized ion beam into the applied magnetic field, wherein the beam enters an orbit due to the force caused by the applied magnetic field. In another aspect of the preferred embodiments, the system forms a magnetic field having a topology of a field-reversed configuration.
In another preferred embodiment, the energy conversion system comprises inverse cyclotron converters (ICC) coupled to opposing ends of the fusion reactor. The ICC have a hollow cylinder-like geometry formed from multiple, preferably four or more equal, semi-cylindrical electrodes with small, straight gaps extending there between. In operation, an oscillating potential is applied to the electrodes in an alternating fashion. The electric field E within the ICC has a multi-pole structure and vanishes on the symmetry axes and increases linearly with radius; the peak value being at the gap.
In addition, the ICC includes a magnetic field generator for applying a uniform uni-directional magnetic field in a direction substantially opposite to that of the fusion reactor""s containment system. At an end furthest from the fusion reactor power core the ICC includes an ion collector. In between the power core and the ICC is a symmetric magnetic cusp wherein the magnetic field of the containment system merges with the magnetic field of the ICC. An annular shaped electron collector is positioned about the magnetic cusp and electrically coupled to the ion collector.
In yet another preferred embodiment, product nuclei and charge-neutralizing electrons emerge as annular beams from both ends of the reactor power core with a density at which the magnetic cusp separates electrons and ions due to their energy differences. The electrons follow magnetic field lines to the electron collector and the ions pass through the cusp where the ion trajectories are modified to follow a substantially helical path along the length of the ICC. Energy is removed from the ions as they spiral past the electrodes, which are connected to a resonant circuit. The loss of perpendicular energy tends to be greatest for the highest energy ions that initially circulate close to the electrodes, where the electric field is strongest.
Other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent from consideration of the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.